Mummification
From wsuwiki
By Melia Lucero
Contents |
The Mystery of Mummification
After the living ancient Egyptians had passed away, they had a very unique and different way of burying and the dead. Through the process of mummification, bodies were able to be perfectly preserved by artificial means (Baines 220). Through the years the process had been modified and by 2200 BCE the sophisticated way of mummification we know today was perfected (Taylor 220). By examining mummies found in the ruins of ancient Egypt, scholars are able to piece together to process of mummification, but the process still seems to be a mystery among scholars. Also, the debate about what the reasons and beliefs behind mummification are still debatable among many scholars.
Process and Techniques
The exact process of mummification has always been a mystery. The Egyptians were silent about the process of mummification (Ikram 52). We also have no exact date to permit us to say when embalming was first attempted in Egypt (Smith 701). Numerous sources have been discovered, which revealed some rituals and parts of the process of mummification. One source is the Rhind Magical papyrus (c. 200 BCE), which provided some rituals sung (Ikram 52). Other sources that provide rituals are papyrus from Cairo, Durham Oriental, and Louvre museums. The most complete accounts of the process of mummification that scholars have discovered are accounts written by Herodus and Diodorus Siculus (Cockburn 15). Herodus was a Greek from Halicarnassus writing about the process in the fifth century, but his reliability is confirmed because of his descriptions of daily Egyptian life and customs seem to be accurate. But the only way to confirm his process is to compare his claims to physical evidence of the mummies discovered in ancient Egypt. By scholars examining mummies they discovered in ancient Egypt, many new discoveries of mummification can be found.
This process of mummification seemed to be agreed upon by most scholars, keeping in mind that it is not confirmed this is the true process but from evidence found this process seems to match the psychical evidence. To begin, the entire process took seventy days to complete. The most important component in this process in natron. Natron is the salt that was left behind from the flooding of the Nile River, which was then dried up by the sun (Taylor 239). Natron was part of the first stage of mummification, by making a solution out of the natron, the body was washed. Following the natron wash the body was coated with resin. The stages following the wash and coating is known as the embalming process, which is done by an embalmer which specializes in the preservation of the body (Bradenberg 8). An embalmer first made an incision on the left side of the body in order to remove the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines. These were then saved and placed in canopic jars filled with natron, which would then be buried with body. All organs were removed, except the heart.
The heart was considered the most important part of the physical body (Ikram 24). It was said that the soul, sprit, and personality resided here. The heart was also an important component of the afterlife. It was said that the heart was weighed against the feather of maat led by Anubis. If the feather and heart were balanced the person is said to have lived a good and just life, and would then proceed to the afterlife. However if the feather and heart were not balanced then that person would forfeit the afterlife and would be consumed by the god Ammit and his life would end forever (Reilly 58).
After the inner organs had been completely removed, the body was then left for forty days soaking in powdered natron. This powdered natron drew out all moisture in the body, which if moisture were not removed body would decay away. After forty days of soaking the internal cavities were washed with spices and the nose and eyes were stuffed with linen. The body was then rubbed with lotion of Juniper oil, beeswax, spices, and natron. This lotion toughed and waterproofed the skin.
Finally, the body was then wrapped with linen. According to a papyrus found in Berlin, there was a certain order in which limbs were to be wrapped (Ikram 52). The fingers and toes were wrapped first, followed by each leg, then each arm, and then finally finishing with the whole body. After each layer amulets, spells from the Book of Dead, and jewelry were inserted (Taylor 239). Various magical resuscitations were also done in between each layer. By wrapping each layer it is believed that a person gains use of each section again in the afterlife (Cockburn 12). Bodies were then placed in a tomb and filled with the person’s personal possessions, canopic jars, and anything that touched the body during the embalmment process. Sometimes faces were even painted on the mummy, in order for the body to be more recognizable. Through the years this process has also changed over time. In the New Kingdom (c 1550- 945 BCE) the removal of the brain was first seen (Taylor 239). By taking a hook, it was inserted through the nose and the brain was taken out through the nose. Some other innovations that changed throughout time are the position of the arms. At times the arms were down at the sides and other times it was crossed over the chest. Another innovation was preserving the fingernails and toenails and using sand under the skin to keep normal appearance (Taylor).
Beliefs and Reasons
Although the process of mummification can be agreed upon by many scholars from the written evidence and physical evidence of mummies discovered in ancient Egypt, the reasons why they believed Egyptians performed mummification on their deceased is still debatable among scholars. The first belief among scholars is based around the sprits that live in the body. According to Salima Ikram there are five components to a person: the ren, a person’s name, the shuyet, their shadow, the Ka, double or life force, the Ba, a person’s personality or soul, and the akh, a person’s spirit (24). After a person died the spirits of the Ba and Ka remained alive after death. The Ba keeps in contact with friends and family and the Ka travels to and from the body to the other world. So, in order for the Ka to return to the body, the body needed to be recognizable, and then the body would be able to live forever (Bradenberg 2). Through the process of mummification the body was able to be recognized, with the name, the ren, on the coffin, the personal possessions and the facial features and painted face of the mummy.
Another opinion on the reasons for performing mummification is that a perfectly preserved body is the only key to a happy afterlife (Cockburn 10). Each part of the body was taken into great care during the embalmment process. If a limb fell off then artificial limbs were added. Since it was believed by wrapping each limb that person gained use of that section again, they were carefully wrapped. Every piece of a body was either wrapped or put into the coffin with the mummified body. If any piece of the body was missing, the afterlife was said not to be promising afterlife (Cockburn 11). Egyptians strongly believed in the afterlife and that either though their body has died the sprit within remains alive to go onto the afterlife. Egyptians wanted to live on forever.
The final opinion of scholars have to why Egyptians went through the process of mummification is they believed they wanted to preserve their bodies so they future will be able to know about their life (Baines 220). Not only did Egyptians mummify people, but also animals. Scholars have discovered many mummies and through the preservation of the bodies, the process of mummification is able to be known. Mummified bodies also helped to the social classes in Egypt. It was said that there were different process of mummification available for different prices according to how much you could afford and what social class you were. The pharaohs were mummified the best, using the finest spices and linens. The lower your class was from the pharaoh class, the process seemed simpler and less fine materials were used. This process of mummification has also shown us how advanced ancient Egypt really was. They had knowledge of the properties of the preservative salts, which they could find in abundance in their land, and they had the knowledge of the resin, from neighboring lands, and they knew by using both the salts and resins the body could be protected from the harsh weather of the Egyptian desserts (Smith 701).
Throughout time, it seems that scholars believe more in the idea of the Ba and Ka. The Egyptians were very spiritual. They are many primary source paintings that have been discovered on walls of pyramids and in the Book of Dead depicting the weighing of the heart by Anubis. The Book of the Dead was the most famous funery text and it served to provision, protect, and guide the deceased to the Afterworld, also known as the fields of Iaru. If a body reached that land they could live eternally at one with the Gods.
Conclusion
The process of mummification has always been a mystery and will still remain a mystery today. Since the process began so long ago and the ancient Egyptians were very secretive it is still hard to know the exact process of mummification. They only sources we have are the papyruses and mummified bodies left behind. Although the process seems hard to uncover, it is even harder to know what the beliefs behind mummification were. All that can be certain is bodies were to be preserved for the future or the afterlife, but the only way to know the exact beliefs is to have lived in the Ancient Egyptians times.
Assessment of Sources
Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt
This is a reliable source because it is an atlas. Though the article was short it gave the basic information that helped me to know what to research next. The strengths are that there were pictures and information was straight to the point. The weaknesses were that it was not enough to write a whole paper and gave no personal opinions. This was produced for people to use a reference. John Baines is a professor in Egyptology. This paper was on Egypt, so he has firsthand knowledge. I would not think there would be any bias. There were no opinions, just the facts of mummification in Egypt.
Mummies Made in Egypt
This source does not seem as reliable as the other sources. It is an illustrated children’s book, but the information seems to be similar to my other sources. There are no cited resources but it does thank professors of New York University for their help. One professor is even a professor for Egyptian art. The strengths of this book are that the information is straight forward. It uses language I can understand and also provides pictures. It also not only talked about the process of mummification but also other aspects, including the beliefs why it started, about where the mummies are buried, and what they are buried in; which the other sources failed to do so. Its limitations are that it is very short. You also do not where this information came from, because this book lacks a work cited. The author of this book is well known for her children’s books, but not for being a specialist in Egyptian history. She was never a professor and never studied Egyptian history. But, I think this is a good thing because I think she will tend not to be bias. She had to have done research for this book and with no previous knowledge of the topic; she tends to believe most of what she researches.
Mummies, Disease, and Ancient Cultures
This source seems reliable. It is not a primary source but still has a good amount of information. It not only contains information from the author but you can tell they had researched this topic because of all the sources they used. The strengths of this resource are that it has pictures. It shows pictures of mummies and gives a map of the major places of Egypt where mummies were found. It also gives a very good description of the process of mummification. I was really able to picture an embalmer doing this to a deceased person. The limitations of this source is that it is not all just on Ancient Egypt, only pages 11-71 are Ancient Egypt and the rest of the book talks about mummies in the Americas and the rest of the world, which is not relevant to my question. The author of this book is Aidan Cockburn. He is a scholar, scientist, and physician and founded the Paleopathology Association. In that association he was best known for his interest studies on mummies. I think when a person is well known for something, it means the information they present is most likely the truth. He could have more bias then a lot of authors, since he was the founder of his own Paleopathology Association, he may not agree too much with others.
Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt
This source seems reliable, but not as much as my previous sources. It also is not a primary source, and it didn’t seem to show many resources they used. It seems like it is more of an opinion book of the author than a researched book. The strengths are that this source helped me more to answer my second part of my question than any of my other sources. The book was also strictly devoted to Ancient Egypt. It also included pictures, which give me a visual of the mummies, which is helpful. The limitations of this source are that the section on actual mummification process and materials was very brief. It gave vague steps and seemed more opinion than researched. The author of this book is Salima Ikram. She is an associate professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo. So, I suppose if she is an Egyptologist she knows something about Egypt. But, however this causes her to be very bias. Teachers tend to believe what they were taught and then they teach that way, and I can see lots of her opinions in this book.
Worlds of History: A Comparative Reader
This is a reliable source because it is our Gened 110 text book. It contains a lot of information before 1550 starting with pre history and the origins of Patriarchy and ending with ecology, technology, and science in Europe, Asia, Oceania, and Africa up to 1550 c.e. Articles within chapters are written by numerous authors and each chapter is introduced and concluded by the editor Kevin Reilly. Its strengths are that in each section Kevin Reilly asks many critical questions. He makes you think throughout reading the chapter. Its weaknesses are that some chapters are confusing to understand depending on the author. This book was produced for a world civilizations class. Many of the authors are university professors or they are primary sources. Primary sources are very reliable. I think throughout each article, each author brings in their own thoughts which makes them bias and favor their opinion.
"Foreign Notes." American Anthropologist
This source is reliable because it is from a scholarly journal. It was a published article in American Anthropologist. Its strengths are that this article talked about what the author believed was the reason why Egyptians first began mummification. It was also straight and short to the point. The articles limitations are that there is no previous evidence of what the reasons are for why the Egyptians began mummifying people. This is solely the opinion of this author. It was also a very short article. The author of this article is Grafton Elliot Smith. He was a professor at Cambridge University and has had numerous articles published. In 1900 he was offered to study anatomy in Cairo and accepted. While he was there he became obsessed with Egypt. He has extensive work on Egyptian culture, which includes mummification. His articles are probably very much bias because they were all his opinions on Egypt. He would have better opinions I would think, if he is in Egypt while studying Egyptian culture.
Death and the Afterlife: a Cultural Encyclopedia
This source was really helpful. It was all about the burial customs and afterlife. This is an encyclopedia and information is encyclopedias seem to be reliable. Just like an atlas it does not give any opinions throughout the article, just the facts. These sources strengths are that it provided detailed information about beliefs of the afterlife and how they honored the dead. The weaknesses are that there was little information. The three short pages is not enough to know all about mummification. The information was good, I just wish there was more. Taylor Richard is a University Professor. He has studied the afterlife and knows his facts. This encyclopedia could have been bias. Since no one knows the exact reasons for the process of mummification, he can only state his opinion. He stated what he believed.
Works Cited
Baines, John, and Jaromir Malek. "Burial Customs." Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford Limited, 1980. Pg 220.
Bradenberg, Aliki. Mummies Made in Egypt. 1st Ed. New York, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1879.
Cockburn, Aidan, Eve Cockburn, and Theodore A. Reyman. Mummies, Disease, and Ancient Cultures. 2nd Ed. New York, New York: Cambridge UP, 1983. 11-71.
Ikram, Salima. Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited, 2003.
Reilly, Kevin. “Images of Ancient Egypt.” Worlds of History: A Comparative Reader. Ed. Kevin Reilly. Vol 1. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford/St.Martins, 2007. Pages 58-65.
Smith, Grafton E. "Foreign Notes." American Anthropologist 10: 698-701. JSTOR. Washington State University, Pullman, WA. 8 Oct. 2007. Keyword: mummification.
Taylor, Richard. "Mummification." Death and the Afterlife: a Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio Inc, 2000. Pgs 237-240.